IBM: Засвар хоорондын ялгаа
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{{hatnote|For other uses of IBM, see [[IBM (disambiguation)]]. "Big Blue" redirects here. It is not to be confused with [[New York Giants]]. For other uses of Big Blue, see [[Big Blue (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox company
|name = International Business Machines Corporation
|logo = [[File:IBM logo.svg|200px|center]]
|logo_caption = Logo as of 1972
|image = IBM Watson.PNG
|image_size = 250
|image_caption = [[Watson (computer)|IBM Watson]] system in 2011
|type = [[Public company|Public]]
|traded_as = {{unbulleted list|{{New York Stock Exchange|IBM}}|[[Dow Jones Industrial Average|DJIA Component]]|[[S&P 100|S&P 100 Component]]|[[S&P 500|S&P 500 Component]]}}
| ISIN = US4592001014
|founder = [[Charles Ranlett Flint]]
|area_served = 177 countries<ref name="fortune20160201">{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/2016/02/01/ibm-employee-performance-reviews/| title=IBM Is Blowing Up Its Annual Performance Review |website= fortune.com |access-date= July 22, 2016}}</ref>
|key_people = [[Ginni Rometty]]<br />({{small|Chairwoman, President and CEO}})
|industry = {{flatlist|
* [[Cloud computing]]
* [[Cognitive computing]]
}}
|products = [[List of IBM products|See IBM products]]
|revenue = {{Decrease}} US$ 79.919 billion (2016)<ref name=10K>{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/finance?q=NYSE%3AIBM&fstype=ii&ei=jDT6UOj7A4WQkAXViQE | title=IBM Corporation Financials Statements |work=United States Securities and Exchange Commission}}</ref>
|operating_income = {{Decrease}} US$ 13.031 billion (2016)<ref name="10K"/>
|net_income = {{Decrease}} US$ 11.872 billion (2016)<ref name=10K/>
|assets = {{nowrap|{{Increase}} US$ 117.47 billion (2016)<ref name=10K/>}}
|equity = {{Increase}} US$ 18.392 billion (2016)<ref name=10K/>
|owner =
|num_employees = 380,000 (2016)<ref>{{cite web|title=2016 IBM Annual Report|url=https://www.ibm.com/annualreport/2016/images/downloads/IBM-Annual-Report-2016.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=IBM.com}}</ref>
|homepage = {{URL|https://www.ibm.com/us-en/|www.ibm.com}}
|caption =
|foundation = {{Start date and age|1911|06|16}} (as [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]])<br>[[Endicott, New York|Endicott]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States|U.S.]]<ref name=certificate1911>Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co, 14th day of June 1911</ref>
|location_city = [[Armonk, New York]]
|location_country = U.S.
}}
{{Listen| filename = Think Thomas J Watson Sr.ogg| title = "THINK"| description = [[Thomas J. Watson]], who led IBM from 1914 to 1956, discussing the company's motto [[Think (IBM)|"THINK"]]| pos =| image =[[File:Thomas J Watson Sr.jpg|100px]]}}
'''IBM''' ('''International Business Machines Corporation''') is an American [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[technology]] company headquartered in [[Armonk, New York]], [[United States]], with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (CTR) and was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924.
IBM manufactures and markets computer [[Computer hardware|hardware]], [[middleware]] and [[computer software|software]], and offers [[Internet hosting service|hosting]] and [[consultant|consulting services]] in areas ranging from [[mainframe computer]]s to [[nanotechnology]]. IBM is also a major research organization, holding the record for most [[patents]] generated by a business (as of 2017) for 24 consecutive years.<ref name="patents">{{cite news|url= https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/presskit/42874.wss |title=24 Years of IBM Patent Leadership |date=2017-01-11 | work= IBM}}</ref> Inventions by IBM include the <!-- ALPHABETICAL ORDER, ONLY MOST NOTABLE HERE, OTHERS IN BODY OF ARTICLE-->[[automated teller machine]] (ATM), the [[Personal computer|PC]], the [[floppy disk]], the [[hard disk drive]], the [[magnetic stripe card]], the [[relational model|relational database]], the [[SQL|SQL programming language]], the [[Universal Product Code|UPC barcode]], and [[dynamic random-access memory]] (DRAM).<!-- ALPHABETICAL ORDER, ONLY MOST NOTABLE HERE, OTHERS IN BODY OF ARTICLE--> The [[IBM mainframe]], exemplified by the [[IBM System/360|System/360]], was the dominant computing platform during the 1960s and 1970s.
IBM has continually shifted its business mix by [[Commoditization|commoditizing]] [[Market (economics)|markets]] focusing on higher-value, more profitable markets. This includes [[Spin out|spinning off]] printer manufacturer [[Lexmark]] in 1991 and selling off its [[personal computer]] ([[ThinkPad]]/[[ThinkCentre]]) and [[x86]]-based [[IBM System x|server]] businesses to [[Lenovo]] (2005 and 2014, respectively), and acquiring companies such as [[PricewaterhouseCoopers|PwC Consulting]] (2002), [[SPSS]] (2009), and [[The Weather Company]] (2016). Also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go "[[Fabless manufacturing|fabless]]", continuing to design [[semiconductors]], but offloading manufacturing to [[GlobalFoundries]].
Nicknamed '''Big Blue''', IBM is one of 30 companies included in the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] and one of the world's largest employers, with (as of 2016) nearly 380,000 employees. Known as "IBMers", IBM employees have been awarded five [[Nobel Prize]]s, six [[Turing Award]]s, ten [[National Medal of Technology|National Medals of Technology]] and five [[National Medal of Science|National Medals of Science]].
==History==
{{Main article|History of IBM}}
In the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of International Business Machines (IBM). Julius E. Pitrat patented the computing scale in 1885;<ref>{{cite book |title=Images of America: IBM in Endicott |last1=Aswad |first1=Ed |last2=Meredith |first2=Suzanne |year=2005 |publisher=[[Arcadia Publishing]] |location= |isbn=0-7385-3700-4 |page= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YzlDdhWK3IsC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=julius+e.+pitrap+computing+scale#v=onepage&q=julius%20e.%20pitrap%20computing%20scale&f=false |accessdate=}}</ref> Alexander Dey invented the dial recorder (1888);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10204421 |title=Dey dial recorder, early 20th century |author= |work= |publisher=UK Science Museum |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref> [[Herman Hollerith]] patented the [[Electric Tabulating Machine]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/census-tabulator.html |title=Hollerith 1890 Census Tabulator |author= |work= |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref> and [[Willard Bundy]] invented a time clock to record a worker's arrival and departure time on a paper tape in 1889.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.floridatimeclock.com/employee-punch-clocks.htm |title=Employee Punch Clocks |author= |work= |publisher=Florida Time Clock |accessdate=30 December 2010}}</ref> On June 16, 1911, their four companies were [[Consolidation (business)|amalgamated]]<!---- there was no consolidation, the 4 companies remained separate entities. If you consolidate you get 1, not 5. ---> in New York State by [[Charles Ranlett Flint]] forming a fifth company, the [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (CTR) based in [[Endicott, New York]].<ref name=certificate1911 /><ref name=nytimes>[https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F00F15FD355A17738DDDA90994DE405B818DF1D3 NY Times June 10, 1911 ''Tabulating Concerns Unite: Flint & Co. Bring Four Together with $19,000,000 capital]</ref> The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]], New York; [[Dayton, Ohio]]; [[Detroit, Michigan]]; [[Washington, D.C.]]; and [[Toronto]]. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. [[Thomas J. Watson, Sr.]], fired from the [[National Cash Register Company]] by [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John Henry Patterson]], called on Flint and, in 1914, was offered CTR.<ref>{{cite book |last= Belden, Thomas Graham |author2= Belden, Marva Robins |year= 1962 |title= The Lengthening Shadow: The Life of Thomas J. Watson |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |pages= 89–93}}</ref> Watson joined CTR as ''General Manager'' then, 11 months later, was made ''President'' when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved.<ref>[[NCR Corporation#Expansion]]</ref> Having learned Patterson's [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)#Pioneering business practices|pioneering business practices]], Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTR's companies.<ref>Belden (1962) p.105</ref> He implemented sales conventions, "generous sales incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and had an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker".<ref name="Story">{{cite web |url=https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1910.html|title=Chronological History of IBM, 1910s |publisher=IBM |accessdate= 30 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Marcosson, Isaac F. |title = Wherever Men Trade: The Romance of the Cash Register |year= 1945 |publisher= Dodd, Mead}}</ref> His favorite slogan, "[[Think (IBM)|THINK]]", became a mantra for each company's employees.<ref name="Story"/> During Watson's first four years, revenues reached $9 million and the company's operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia.<ref name="Story"/> "Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR" and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title "International Business Machines".<ref name="True story 1962 p.125">Belden (1962) p.125</ref> By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, IBM.<ref>(Rodgers, THINK, p.83)</ref>
[[File:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|left|[[NACA]] researchers using an [[IBM 704|IBM type 704]] electronic data processing machine in 1957]]
In 1937, IBM's tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the [[U.S. Government]], during its first effort to maintain the employment records for 26 million people pursuant to the [[Social Security Act]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.socialsecurity.gov/history/ibm.html | title=Early Automation Challenges for SSA | first=Larry | last=DeWitt |date = April 2000| accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref> and Hitler's [[Third Reich]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/1388.wss|date=February 14, 2001|title=IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit|publisher=IBM Press room}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://mic.com/articles/142991/edwin-black-ibm-nazi-holocaust-history#.dbqMwyUCp|title=This Is the Hidden Nazi History of IBM — And the Man Who Tried to Expose It|publisher=Tech.Mic}}</ref> largely through the German subsidiary [[Dehomag]]. During the [[Second World War]] the company produced small arms for the American war effort ([[M1 Carbine]], and [[Browning Automatic Rifle]]).
In 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr., created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations.<ref name="WTC1949">{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/ibmworldtrade/ |title=The Creation of the World Trade Corporation |author= |work= |publisher=IBM Corp. |website= ibm.com|accessdate=8 June 2016}}</ref> In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, and his son [[Thomas Watson, Jr.]] was named president. In 1956, the company demonstrated the first practical example of [[artificial intelligence]] when Arthur L. Samuel of IBM's Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programmed an [[IBM 704]] not merely to play checkers but "learn" from its own experience. In 1957, the [[FORTRAN]] scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the [[Sabre (computer system)|SABRE reservation system]] for [[American Airlines]] and introduced the highly successful [[IBM Selectric typewriter|Selectric]] typewriter. In 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later, it moved its corporate headquarters from New York City to [[Armonk, New York]]. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, participating in the 1965 Gemini flights, 1966 Saturn flights and 1969 lunar mission.
[[File:IBM360-67AtUmichWithMikeAlexander.jpg|thumb|right|An [[IBM System/360]] in use at the [[University of Michigan]] c. 1969.]]
On April 7, 1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the [[IBM System/360]]. It spanned the complete range of commercial and scientific applications from large to small, allowing companies for the first time to upgrade to models with greater computing capability without having to rewrite their applications. It was followed by the [[IBM System/370]] in 1970. Together the 360 and 370 made the [[IBM mainframe]] the dominant [[mainframe computer]] and the dominant computing platform in the industry throughout this period and into the early 1980s. They, and the operating systems that ran on them such as [[OS/VS1]] and [[MVS]], and the middleware built on top of those such as the [[CICS]] transaction processing monitor, had a near-monopoly-level hold on the computer industry and became almost synonymous with IBM products due to their marketshare.<ref>{{cite book | title=From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog: A History of the Software Industry | first=Martin | last=Campbell-Kelly | authorlink=Martin Campbell-Kelly | publisher=[[MIT Press]] | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts | year=2003 | pages=140–143, 175–176, 237}}</ref>
In 1974, IBM engineer [[George J. Laurer]] developed the [[Universal Product Code]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cummingsdesign.com/bar_code_history.htm |title=The history of the UPC bar code and how the bar code symbol and system became a world standard. |author= |work= |publisher=Cummingsdesign |accessdate=17 May 2011}}</ref> IBM and the [[World Bank]] first introduced [[Swap (finance)|financial swaps]] to the public in 1981 when they entered into a swap agreement.<ref>{{cite book |title= Fundamentals of Corporate Finance |edition=9th, alternate |last1=Ross |last2 =Westerfield|last3= Jordan|year= 2010 |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |location= |isbn= |page=746 |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref> The [[IBM PC]], originally designated IBM 5150, was introduced in 1981, and it soon became an industry standard. In 1991, IBM sold printer manufacturer [[Lexmark]].
In 1993, IBM posted a US$8 billion loss - at the time the biggest in American corporate history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://public.dhe.ibm.com/common/ssi/ecm/en/gbe03420usen/GBE03420USEN.PDF |format=PDF|title= Life science: Fade or flourish ?|first1= Guy|last1= Lefever|first2= Michele|last2= Pesanello|first3= Heather|last3= Fraser|first4=Lee|last4= Taurman|year=2011|publisher= IBM Institute for Business Value|accessdate=6 July 2013|location=p. 2}}</ref> [[Lou Gerstner]] was hired as CEO from [[RJR Nabisco]] to turn the company around.<ref>{{cite web|title=Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. Biography|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/biography/10153.wss}}</ref> In 2002, IBM acquired [[PwC]] consulting, and in 2003 it initiated a project to redefine company values, hosting a three-day online discussion of key [[business]] issues with 50,000 employees. The result was three values: "Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that matters—for our company and for the world", and "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/04-27-2004.html%7ctitle=Speeches%7cpublisher=IBM%7cdate=2004-04-27|title=IBM About IBM - United States|publisher=|accessdate=May 28, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Leading Change When Business Is Good: The HBR Interview--Samuel J. Palmisano |journal=Harvard Business Review |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=December 2004}}</ref>
[[File:IBMinventions.png|thumb|left|IBM inventions: (clockwise from top-left) the [[hard-disk drive]], [[DRAM]], the [[UPC bar code]], and the [[magnetic stripe card]]]]
In 2005, the company sold its personal computer business to Chinese technology company [[Lenovo]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/19066.wss|title= IBM to Acquire Micromuse Inc.|publisher= IBM}}</ref> and, in 2009, it acquired software company [[SPSS Inc.]] Later in 2009, IBM's [[Blue Gene]] supercomputing program was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology and Innovation]] by [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Barack Obama]]. In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its [[artificial intelligence]] program [[Watson (artificial intelligence software)|Watson]], which was exhibited on ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' where it won against game-show champions [[Ken Jennings]] and [[Brad Rutter]]. The company also celebrated it's 100th anniversary on the same year on June 16th. In 2012, IBM announced it has agreed to buy [[Kenexa]], and a year later it also acquired [[SoftLayer Technologies]], a [[web hosting service]], in a deal worth around $2 billion.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/05/us-softlayer-ibm-idUSBRE9530NT20130605| title=IBM to buy website hosting service SoftLayer| author=Jennifer Saba | publisher=Reuters | date= 5 June 2013}}</ref>
In 2014, IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for a fee of $2.1 billion.<ref>{{cite press release | publisher= Reuters| date=29 September 2014| title= Lenovo says $2.1 billion IBM x86 server deal to close on Wednesday | url= https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/29/us-lenovo-ibm-deals-idUSKCN0HO08N20140929}}</ref>{{better|date=November 2017}} Also that year, IBM began announcing several major partnerships with other companies, including [[Apple Inc.]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Apple + IBM|url= http://www.ibm.com/mobilefirst/us/en/?lnk=ushpls1|publisher= IBM|accessdate=18 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1= Etherington|first1= Darrell|title= Apple Teams Up With IBM For Huge, Expansive Enterprise Push|url= https://techcrunch.com/2014/07/15/apple-teams-up-with-ibm-for-huge-expansive-enterprise-push/|publisher= Tech Crunch|accessdate=18 July 2014|date=15 July 2014}}</ref> [[Twitter]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Landmark IBM Twitter partnership to help businesses make decisions|url= http://marketbusinessnews.com/landmark-ibm-twitter-partnership-help-businesses-make-decisions/37093|publisher= Market Business News|date=November 2, 2014}}</ref> [[Facebook]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ha|first1=Anthony|title=IBM Announces Marketing Partnership With Facebook|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/05/05/ibm-partners-with-facebook/|publisher=TechCrunch|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Tencent]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kyung-Hoon|first1=Kim|title=Tencent teams up with IBM to offer business software over the cloud|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-tencent-ibm-deals-idUSKBN0IK0Q320141103|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Cisco]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vanian|first1=Jonathan|title=Cisco and IBM's New Partnership Is a Lot About Talk|url=http://fortune.com/2016/06/30/cisco-ibm-chat-work-collaboration/|publisher=Fortune|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[UnderArmour]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Terdiman|first1=Daniel|title=IBM, Under Armour Team Up To Bring Cognitive Computing To Fitness Apps|url=http://www.fastcompany.com/3055148/ibm-under-armour-team-up-to-bring-cognitive-computing-to-fitness-apps|publisher=Fast Company|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Box (company)|Box]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Franklin Jr.|first1=Curtis|title=IBM, Box Cloud Partnership: What It Means|url=http://www.informationweek.com/cloud/cloud-storage/ibm-box-cloud-partnership-what-it-means/a/d-id/1321059|publisher=Information Week|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Microsoft]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Weinberger|first1=Matt|title=Microsoft just made a deal with IBM — and Apple should be nervous|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-ibm-surface-partnership-2016-7|publisher=Business Insider|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[VMware]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Forrest|first1=Conner|title=VMware and SugarCRM expand partnerships with IBM, make services available on IBM Cloud|url=http://www.techrepublic.com/article/vmware-and-sugarcrm-expand-partnerships-with-ibm-make-services-available-on-ibm-cloud/|publisher=Tech Republic|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Computer Sciences Corporation|CSC]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taft|first1=Darryl|title=IBM, CSC Expand Their Cloud Deal to the Mainframe|publisher=eWeek|url=http://www.eweek.com/cloud/ibm-csc-expand-their-cloud-deal-to-the-mainframe.html|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Macy's]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taft|first1=Darryl|title=Macy's Taps IBM, Satisfi for In-Store Shopping Companion|url=http://www.eweek.com/database/macys-taps-ibm-satisfi-for-in-store-shopping-companion.html|publisher=eWeek|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> [[Sesame Workshop]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Toppo|first1=Greg|title=Sesame Workshop, IBM partner to use Watson for preschoolers|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2016/04/27/sesame-workshop-ibm-partner-use-watson-preschoolers/83563342/|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> the parent company of [[Sesame Street]], and [[Salesforce.com]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nusca|first1=Andrea|title=IBM, Salesforce Strike Global Partnership on Cloud, AI|url=http://fortune.com/2017/03/06/ibm-salesforce-partnership-ai/|publisher=Fortune|accessdate=7 March 2017}}</ref>
In 2015, IBM announced two major acquisitions: Merge Healthcare for $1 billion<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2015-08-06/ibm-buys-merge-healthcare-to-boost-watson-health-cloud | work=Bloomberg | title=IBM Buys Merge Healthcare to Boost Watson Health Cloud | date=August 6, 2015}}</ref> and all digital assets from [[The Weather Company]], including [[Weather.com]] and the Weather Channel [[mobile app]].<ref name=bloomberg-twcibm>{{cite news|title=IBM Agrees to Acquire Weather Channel's Digital Assets|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-28/ibm-agrees-to-acquire-weather-channel-s-digital-assets|accessdate=28 October 2015|work=Bloomberg}}</ref><ref name=nyt-ibmtwc>{{cite news|title=IBM to Acquire the Weather Company|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/29/technology/ibm-to-acquire-the-weather-company.html?_r=0|accessdate=28 October 2015|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Also that year, IBMers created the film ''[[A Boy and His Atom]]'', which was the first molecule movie to tell a story. In 2016, IBM acquired video conferencing service [[Ustream]] and formed a new cloud video unit.<ref>{{cite web|title= IBM acquires Ustream, launches cloud video unit|url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/01/21/ibm-acquires-ustream-launches-cloud-video-unit/79109112/|publisher= USA Today|date=January 21, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ustream.tv/blog/2016/01/21/ibm-acquires-ustream-behind-the-acquisition/ |title=IBM Acquires Ustream: Behind the Acquisition |first=Tilly |last=McLain |date=21 January 2016 |website=Ustream Online Video Blog |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6jxOs9hx1?url=http://www.ustream.tv/blog/2016/01/21/ibm-acquires-ustream-behind-the-acquisition/ |archive-date=August 22, 2016 |dead-url=no |access-date=22 August 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In April 2016, it posted a 14-year low in quarterly sales.<ref>Matt Egan, CNN Money. “[http://money.cnn.com/2016/04/19/investing/ibm-earnings-shrinking-14-year-low/ Big Blue isn't so big anymore].” April 19, 2016. April 22, 2016.</ref> The following month, [[Groupon]] sued IBM accusing it of patent infringement, two months after IBM accused Groupon of patent infringement in a separate lawsuit.<ref>Jonathan Stempel, Reuters. “[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ibm-groupon-idUSKCN0Y02KG Groupon sues 'once-great' IBM over patent].” May 9, 2016. May 9, 2016.</ref>
==Headquarters and offices==
[[File:IBM CHQ - Oct 2014.jpg|thumb|IBM CHQ in [[Armonk, New York]] in 2014]]
[[File:IBM Beijing, Pangu Plaza.jpg|thumb|Pangu Plaza, one of IBM's offices in [[Beijing, China]]]]
IBM is headquartered in [[Armonk, New York]], a community {{convert|37|mi}} north of Midtown Manhattan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/contact/us/en/|title=Contact Us|publisher=IBM|accessdate=October 20, 2009}}</ref> Its principal building, referred to as CHQ, is a {{convert|283000|sqft|m2|adj=on}} glass and stone edifice on a {{convert|25|acre|adj=on}} parcel amid a 432-acre former apple orchard the company purchased in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/091797ibm.html |title=IBM's New Headquarters Reflects A Change in Corporate Style |first=Laurence |last=Zuckerman |date=17 September 1997 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=22 August 2016 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6jxNwwlJ1?url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/091797ibm.html |archive-date=August 22, 2016 |dead-url=no |df=mdy-all }}</ref> There are two other IBM buildings within walking distance of CHQ: the North Castle office, which previously served as IBM's headquarters; and the IBM Learning Center (ILC), a resort hotel and training center, which has 182 guest rooms, 31 meeting rooms, and various amenities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Property Overview|url=http://www.ibmlearningcenter.com/property-overview/property-overview.asp|publisher=Dolce Hotels and Resorts|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref>
IBM operates in 174 countries as of 2016,<ref name="fortune20160201"/> with mobility centers in smaller markets areas and major campuses in the larger ones. In [[New York City]], IBM has several offices besides CHQ, including the [[Watson (computer)|IBM Watson]] headquarters at [[Astor Place]] in [[Manhattan]]. Outside of New York, major campuses in the United States include [[Austin, Texas]]; [[Research Triangle Park|Research Triangle Park (Raleigh-Durham), North Carolina]]; [[IBM Rochester|Rochester, Minnesota]]; and [[IBM Research - Almaden|Silicon Valley, California]].
IBM's real estate holdings are varied and globally diverse. Towers occupied by IBM include [[1250 René-Lévesque]] (Montreal, Canada), [[Tour Descartes]] (Paris, France), and [[One Atlantic Center]] (Atlanta, Georgia, USA). In [[Beijing, China]], IBM occupies Pangu Plaza, which is the city's [[List of tallest buildings in Beijing|seventh tallest building]] and overlooks [[Beijing National Stadium|Beijing National Stadium ("Bird's Nest")]], which was home to the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].
Other notable buildings include the [[IBM Rome Software Lab]] (Rome, Italy), the [[Hursley House]] (Winchester, UK), [[330 North Wabash]] (Chicago, Illinois, United States), the [[Cambridge Scientific Center]] (Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States), the [[IBM Toronto Software Lab]] (Toronto, Canada), the [[IBM Building, Johannesburg]] (Johannesburg, South Africa), the [[IBM Building (Seattle)]] (Seattle, Washington, United States), the [[IBM Hakozaki Facility]] (Tokyo, Japan), the [[IBM Yamato Facility]] (Yamato, Japan), and the [[IBM Canada Head Office Building]] (Ontario, Canada). Defunct IBM campuses include the [[IBM Somers Office Complex]] (Somers, New York). The company's contributions to industrial architecture and design include works by [[Eero Saarinen]], [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] and [[I.M. Pei]]. Van der Rohe's building in Chicago, the original center of the company's research division post-World War II, was recognized with the 1990 [[Honor Award]] from the [[National Building Museum]].<ref name="Honor">{{cite news|title=In the IBM Honoring the Corporation's Buildings|author=Benjamin Forgey|date=1990-03-24|publisher=Washington Post}}</ref> IBM was recognized as one of the Top 20 Best Workplaces for Commuters by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 2005, which recognized [[Fortune 500]] companies that provided employees with excellent [[Commuting|commuter]] benefits to help reduce traffic and air pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/world/environmental/index.shtml|title=Environmental Protection|date=3 May 2008|publisher=IBM}}</ref> In 2004, concerns were raised related to IBM's contribution in its early days to [[pollution]] in its original location in [[Endicott, New York#Pollution|Endicott, New York]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dec.ny.gov/chemical/47783.html|title=Village of Endicott Environmental Investigations|accessdate=28 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E4DF1631F936A25750C0A9629C8B63&fta=y|title=In an I.B.M. Village, Pollution Fears Taint Relations With Neighbors|date=15 March 2004|accessdate=1 May 2008|publisher=New York Times Online|first=Samme|last=Chittum}}</ref>
==Products and services==
{{see also|List of IBM products}}<!-- THIS SECTION FOCUSED ON CURRENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES -- OLDER ONES IN HISTORY SECTION-->
[[File:IBM Interconnect.jpg|thumb|InterConnect, IBM's annual conference on [[cloud computing]] and [[mobile technology|mobile technologies]]]]
[[File:Mira - Blue Gene Q at Argonne National Laboratory - Skin.jpg|thumb|right|[[Blue Gene]] was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology and Innovation]] in 2009.]]
IBM has a large and diverse portfolio of products and services. As of 2016, these offerings fall into the categories of [[cloud computing]], [[cognitive computing]], [[commerce]], [[data]] and [[analytics]], [[Internet of Things]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2479438,00.asp|title=IBM Investing $3B in Internet of Things|work=PCMAG|accessdate=May 28, 2015}}</ref> [[IT infrastructure]], [[Mobile computing|mobile]], and [[security]].<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM Products|url=http://www.ibm.com/products/en-us/?lnk=hmpr|publisher=IBM|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref>
[[IBM cloud computing|IBM Cloud]] includes [[infrastructure as a service]] (IaaS), [[software as a service]] (SaaS) and [[platform as a service]] (PaaS) offered through public, private and hybrid [[Cloud computing#Deployment models|cloud delivery models]]. For instance, the IBM [[Bluemix]] PaaS enables developers to quickly create complex websites on a pay-as-you-go model. IBM [[SoftLayer]] is a [[dedicated server]], [[managed hosting]] and [[cloud computing]] provider, which in 2011 reported hosting more than 81,000 servers for more than 26,000 customers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Data Center Knowledge - SoftLayer: $78 Million in First Quarter Revenue|url=http://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2011/05/17/softlayer-78-million-in-first-quarter-revenue/ |accessdate=14 August 2016}}</ref> IBM also offers Cloud Data Encryption Services (ICDES), using [[cryptographic splitting]] to secure customer data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/blogs/cloud-computing/2015/10/a-billion-reasons-you-want-to-encrypt-your-data/?S_TACT=C34409NW&S_TACT=C34409NW&S_TACT=C34409NW&S_TACT=C34409NW |title=Cloud computing news: Security|publisher=ibm.com |date=2015-10-21 |accessdate=2016-09-23}}</ref>
IBM also hosts the industry-wide cloud computing and mobile technologies conference InterConnect each year.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lunden|first1=Ingrid|title=IBM Inks VMware, GitHub, Bitly Deals, Expands Apple Swift Use As It Doubles Down On The Cloud|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/02/22/ibm-inks-deals-with-apple-vmware-github-bitly-and-more-as-it-doubles-down-on-the-cloud/|publisher=TechCrunch|accessdate=14 August 2016}}</ref>
[[Computer hardware|Hardware]] designed by IBM for these categories include IBM's [[IBM POWER microprocessors|POWER microprocessors]], which are employed inside many [[video game console|console gaming systems]], including [[Xbox 360]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/chips/news/2005/1025_xbox.html|title=IBM delivers Power-based chip for Microsoft Xbox 360 worldwide launch|publisher=IBM|date=2005-10-25}}</ref> [[PlayStation 3]], and [[Nintendo]]'s [[Wii U]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Staff Writer, mybroadband|url=http://mybroadband.co.za/news/gaming/26011-ibm-microprocessors-drive-the-new-nintendo-wii-u-console.html|title=IBM microprocessors drive the new Nintendo WiiU console|publisher=mybroadband.co.za|date=Jun 8, 2011|accessdate=June 17, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Leung|first=Isaac|author2=Electronics News|url=http://www.electronicsnews.com.au/news/ibms-45nm-soi-microprocessors-at-core-of-nintendo|title=IBM’S 45NM SOI MICROPROCESSORS AT CORE OF NINTENDO WII U|publisher=electronicsnews.com.au|date=June 8, 2011|accessdate=June 17, 2011}}</ref> IBM [[Secure Blue]] is encryption hardware that can be built into microprocessors,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asmarterplanet.com/blog/2008/11/building-a-smarter-planet.html |title=Building a smarter planet |publisher=Asmarterplanet.com |accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref> and in 2014, the company revealed it was investing $3 billion over the following five years to design a neural chip that mimics the human brain, with 10 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses, but that uses just 1 kilowatt of power.<ref name="BrainIBM">{{cite news|title=New research initiative sees IBM commit $3 bn|url=http://www.sanfrancisconews.net/index.php/sid/223650653/scat/3a8a80d6f705f8cc/ht/New-research-initiative-sees-IBM-commit-3-bn|accessdate=10 July 2014|publisher=''San Francisco News.Net''}}</ref> In 2016, the company launched [[Flash file system|all-flash arrays]] designed for small and midsized companies, which includes software for data compression, provisioning, and snapshots across various systems.<ref>Larry Dignan, ZDNet. “[http://www.zdnet.com/article/ibm-launches-flash-arrays-for-smaller-enterprises-aims-to-court-emc-dell-customers/ IBM launches flash arrays for smaller enterprises, aims to court EMC, Dell customers].” August 23, 2016. August 23, 2016.</ref>
[[IT outsourcing]] also represents a major service offered by IBM, with more than 40 [[data centers]] worldwide.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25773266 | work=BBC News | title=IBM commits .2bn to cloud data centre expansion | date=17 January 2014}}</ref> [[alphaWorks]] is IBM's source for emerging software technologies, and [[SPSS]] is a [[computer program|software package]] used for [[statistical analysis]]. IBM's [[Kenexa]] suite provides [[employment]] and [[Employee retention|retention]] solutions, and includes the [[BrassRing]], an [[applicant tracking system]] used by thousands of companies for recruiting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoovers.com/company/Kenexa_Corporation/rfrttif-1.html |title=Kenexa Corporation | Company Profile from Hoover’s |publisher=Hoovers.com |date= |accessdate=2015-10-08}}</ref> IBM also owns [[The Weather Company]], which provides [[weather forecasting]] and includes [[weather.com]] and [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]].
[[Smarter Planet]] is an initiative that seeks to achieve [[economic growth]], near-term efficiency, [[sustainable development]], and societal progress,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/big-blues-smarter-marketing-playbook/ | work=The New York Times | title=Big Blue's Smarter Marketing Playbook | first=Steve | last=Lohr | date=2010-01-12 | accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13772_3-20012306-52.html | work=CNET News | title=At IBM Research, a constant quest for the bleeding edge | first=Daniel | last=Terdiman | date=2010-08-02 | accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref> targeting opportunities such as [[smart grid]]s,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/grid |title=Smart Grid |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409051620/http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/smart_grid/ideas/index.html?ca=v_grid |archive-date=April 9, 2011 }}</ref> [[water management]] systems,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/water |title=Smarter Water Management |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418005337/http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/water_management/ideas/index.html?ca=v_water |archive-date=April 18, 2010 }}</ref> solutions to [[traffic congestion]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/traffic |title=Smart traffic |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504161755/http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/traffic_congestion/ideas/index.html?ca=v_traffic |archive-date=May 4, 2010 }}</ref> and greener buildings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/buildings |title=Smarter Buildings |dead-url=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614230343/http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/green_buildings/ideas/index.html?ca=v_buildings |archive-date=June 14, 2011 }}</ref>
Services offerings include [[IBM Redbooks|Redbooks]], which are publicly available online books about best practices with IBM products, and [[developerWorks]], a website for [[software developer]]s and IT professionals with how-to articles and tutorials, as well as software downloads, code samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and other resources for developers and technical professionals.<ref name="developerWorks">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/aboutdw/ |title=About developerWorks |website=[[IBM developerWorks]]| accessdate=22 August 2016}}</ref>
[[IBM Watson]] is a technology platform that uses [[natural language processing]] and [[machine learning]] to reveal insights from large amounts of [[unstructured data]].<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Watson?|url=http://www.ibm.com/watson/what-is-watson.html|publisher=IBM|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> Watson was debuted in 2011 on the American game-show ''[[Jeopardy!]]'', where it competed against champions [[Ken Jennings]] and [[Brad Rutter]] in a three-game tournament and won. Watson has since been applied to business, healthcare, developers, and universities. For example, IBM has partnered with [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center]] to assist with considering treatment options for [[oncology]] patients and for doing [[melanoma]] screenings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Watson Oncology|url=https://www.mskcc.org/about/innovative-collaborations/watson-oncology|publisher=Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> Also, several companies have begun using Watson for [[call centers]], either replacing or assisting customer service agents.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Upbin|first1=Bruce|title=IBM's Watson Now A Customer Service Agent, Coming To Smartphones Soon|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bruceupbin/2013/05/21/ibms-watson-now-a-customer-service-agent-coming-to-smartphones-soon/#4015489817f3|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=13 August 2016}}</ref> <!-- THIS SECTION FOCUSED ON CURRENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES -- OLDER ONES IN HISTORY SECTION-->
==Research==
[[File:IBM Yorktown Heights.jpg|thumb|The [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] in [[Yorktown Heights, New York]], is one of 12 IBM research labs worldwide.]]
[[File:Benoit Mandelbrot, TED 2010.jpg|thumb|upright|[[IBM Fellow]] [[Benoit Mandelbrot]] discovered [[fractal geometry]] in 1975.]]
Research has been a part of IBM since its founding, and its organized efforts trace their roots back to 1945, when the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory was founded at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]], converting a renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side into IBM's first laboratory. Now, [[IBM Research]] constitutes the largest [[R&D|industrial research]] organization in the world, with 12 labs on 6 continents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/labs/|title=IBM Research: Global labs|publisher=|accessdate=May 28, 2015}}</ref> IBM Research is headquartered at the [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] in New York, and facilities include the [[IBM Almaden Research Center|Almaden lab]] in California, [[IBM Austin Research Laboratory|Austin lab]] in Texas, [[IBM Research-Australia|Australia lab]] in [[Melbourne]], [[IBM Research – Brazil|Brazil lab]] in [[São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[IBM China Research Laboratory|China lab]] in [[Beijing]] and [[Shanghai]], [[IBM Research – Ireland|Ireland lab]] in Dublin, [[IBM Haifa Research Laboratory|Haifa lab]] in [[Israel]], [[IBM India Research Laboratory|India lab]] in [[Delhi]] and [[Bangalore]], [[IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory|Tokyo lab]], [[IBM Zurich Research Laboratory|Zurich lab]] and [[IBM Research – Africa|Africa lab]] in [[Nairobi]].
In terms of investment, IBM's [[R&D]] spend totals several billion dollars each year. In 2012, that expenditure was approximately $6.9 billion USD.<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM's expenditure on research and development from 2005 to 2015 (in billion U.S. dollars)|url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/274821/ibms-expenditure-on-research-and-development-since-2005/|publisher=Statista|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> Recent allocations have included $1 billion to create a business unit for [[IBM Watson|Watson]] in 2014, and $3 billion to create a next-gen semiconductor along with $4 billion towards growing the company's "strategic imperatives" (cloud, analytics, mobile, security, social) in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bort|first1=Julie|title=Ginni Rometty just set a big goal for IBM: spending $4 billion to bring in $40 billion|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/ibm-ceo-sets-big-40-billion-goal-2015-2|publisher=Business Insider|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref>
IBM has been a leading proponent of the [[Open Source Initiative]], and began supporting [[Linux]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/news/1999/03/02.phtml |title=IBM launches biggest Linux lineup ever |date=1999-03-02 |publisher=IBM |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19991110114228/http://www.ibm.com/news/1999/03/02.phtml |archivedate=1999-11-10}}</ref> The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux through the IBM [[Linux Technology Center]], which includes over 300 [[Linux kernel]] developers.<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM invests in Brazil Linux Tech Center|url=https://lwn.net/Articles/185602/|date=2006-05-24|publisher=[[LWN.net]]|author=Farrah Hamid}}</ref> IBM has also released code under different [[open source license]]s, such as the [[Cross-platform|platform-independent]] [[software framework]] [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] (worth approximately US$40 million at the time of the donation),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-erick.html |title=Interview: The Eclipse code donation |date=2001-11-01 |publisher=IBM |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091218093727/http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-erick.html |archivedate=December 18, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> the three-sentence [https://archive.is/20121220184517/http://source.icu-project.org/repos/icu/icu/trunk/license.html International Components for Unicode] ([[International Components for Unicode|ICU]]) license, and the [[Java (programming language)|Java]]-based [[relational database management system]] (RDBMS) [[Apache Derby]]. IBM's [[open source]] involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see ''[[SCO v. IBM]]'').
Famous inventions and developments by IBM include: <!-- ALPHABETICAL ORDER-->the [[Automated teller machine|Automated teller machine (ATM)]], [[DRAM|Dynamic random access memory (DRAM)]], the [[Keypunch|electronic keypunch]], the [[swap (finance)|financial swap]], the [[floppy disk]], the [[hard disk drive]], the [[magnetic stripe card]], the [[relational model|relational database]], [[Reduced instruction set computing|RISC]], the [[Sabre (computer system)|SABRE airline reservation system]], [[SQL]], the [[Universal Product Code|Universal Product Code (UPC)]] bar code, and the [[virtual machine]].<!-- ALPHABETICAL ORDER--> Additionally, in 1990 company scientists used a [[scanning tunneling microscope]] to arrange 35 [[IBM (atoms)|individual xenon atoms]] to spell out the company acronym, marking the first structure assembled one atom at a time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV1003.html|title=IBM Archives: "IBM" atoms|publisher=IBM}}</ref> A major part of IBM research is the generation of [[patents]]. Since its first patent for a traffic signaling device, IBM has been one of the world's most prolific patent sources. In 2017, the company holds the record for most [[patents]] generated by a business, marking 24 consecutive years for the achievement.<ref name="patents"/>
Five IBMers have received the [[Nobel Prize]]: [[Leo Esaki]], of the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, N.Y., in 1973, for work in semiconductors; [[Gerd Binnig]] and [[Heinrich Rohrer]], of the Zurich Research Center, in 1986, for the [[scanning tunneling microscope]];<ref name="nobelPR">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/press.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986 - Press Release|publisher=Nobel Media AB|date=1986-10-15|accessdate=2014-01-01}}</ref> and [[Georg Bednorz]] and [[K. Alex Müller|Alex Müller]], also of Zurich, in 1987, for research in [[superconductivity]]. Several IBMers have also won the [[Turing Award]], including the first female recipient [[Frances E. Allen]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Jr | first1 = S. | last2 = Guy | first2 = L. | doi = 10.1145/1866739.1866752 | title = An interview with Frances E. Allen | journal = [[Communications of the ACM]] | volume = 54 | pages = 39 | year = 2011 | pmid = | pmc = }}</ref>
Current research includes a collaboration with the [[University of Michigan]] to see computers act as an academic adviser for undergraduate computer science and engineering students at the university,<ref>Clare Hopping, IT Pro. “[http://www.itpro.co.uk/strategy/25876/ibm-and-university-of-michigan-develop-human-computer IBM and University of Michigan develop human computer].” Jan 18, 2016. Jan 18, 2016.</ref> and a partnership with [[AT&T]], combining their cloud and Internet of Things (IoT) platforms to make them interoperable and to provide developers with easier tools.<ref>Larry Dignan, ZDNet. “[http://www.zdnet.com/article/ibm-at-t-to-meld-internet-of-things-platforms/ IBM, AT&T to meld Internet of Things platforms].” July 13, 2016. July 13, 2016.</ref>
==Brand and reputation==
[[File:IBM ads at JFK.jpg|thumb|IBM ads at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]], 2013]]
IBM is nicknamed ''Big Blue'' in part due to its blue logo and color scheme,<ref name="Big Blue">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Da1bPYRyltMC&pg=PA228&lpg=PA228&dq=big+blue+ibm|title=Postphenomenology: A Critical Companion to Ihde |page=228|isbn=0-7914-6787-2|year=2006|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|author=edited by Evan Selinger.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=5zAW7RntiD8C&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=big+blue+ibm|title=Logos, Letterheads & Business Cards: Design for Profit |page=15|isbn=2-88046-750-0|year=2004|publisher=Rotovision|author=Conway Lloyd Morgan and Chris Foges.}}</ref> and also partially since IBM once had a de facto [[dress code]] of white shirts with blue suits.<ref name="Big Blue"/><ref>{{cite book|page=55|title=The Essential Guide to Computing: The Story of Information Technology|url=https://books.google.com/?id=AwrQsOW5SsQC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=big+blue+ibm|publisher=Publisher: Prentice Hall PTR|isbn=0-13-019469-7|author=E. Garrison Walters.|year=2001}}</ref> The company logo has undergone several changes over the years, with its current "8-bar" [[logo]] designed in 1972 by [[graphic designer]] [[Paul Rand]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/logo/logo_8.html|title=IBM Archives|publisher=IBM}}</ref> It was a general replacement for a 13-bar logo, since period photocopiers did not render large areas well.
IBM has a valuable brand as a result of over 100 years of operations and marketing campaigns. Since 1996, IBM has been the exclusive technology partner for the [[Masters Tournament]], one of the four [[Men's major golf championships|major championships]] in [[Professional golf tours|professional golf]], with IBM creating the first Masters.org (1996), the first course cam (1998), the first iPhone app with live streaming (2009), and first-ever live 4K Ultra High Definition feed in the United States for a major sporting event (2016).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Clayton|first1=Ward|title=IBM and Masters Celebrate 20 Years|url=http://www.masters.com/en_US/news/articles/2016-04-02/ibm_and_masterscom_celebrate_20_years.html|publisher=Masters|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> As a result, IBM CEO [[Ginni Rometty]] became the third female member of the Master's governing body, the [[Augusta National Golf Club]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Weinman|first1=Sam|title=IBM CEO Ginni Rometty is Augusta National's third female member|url=http://www.golfdigest.com/story/ibm-ceo-ginni-rometty-is-augus|publisher=Golf Digest|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> IBM is also a major sponsor in professional [[tennis]], with engagements at the [[US Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]], [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]], the [[Australian Open]], and the [[French Open]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Snyder|first1=Benjamin|title=Why IBM dominates the U.S. Open|url=http://fortune.com/2015/09/01/ibm-us-open-tennis-tech/|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> The company also sponsored the [[Olympic Games]] from 1960-2000,<ref>{{cite web|last1=DiCarlo|first1=Lisa|title=IBM, Olympics Part Ways After 40 Years|url=https://www.forbes.com/2000/08/23/feat.html|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> and the [[National Football League]] from 2003-2012.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Jinks|first1=Beth|title=IBM Ends Its NFL Sponsorship Over Difference in Views|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-06-05/ibm-ends-its-nfl-sponsorship-over-difference-in-views|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref>
In 2012, IBM's brand was valued at $75.5 billion and ranked by ''[[Interbrand]]'' as the №2 best brand worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interbrand.com/en/best-global-brands/2012/Best-Global-Brands-2012.aspx |title=Best Global Brands Ranking for 2012 |author= |work= |publisher=[[Interbrand]] |accessdate=6 June 2013}}</ref> That same year, it was also ranked the №1 company for leaders (''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]''), the №2 [[green company]] in the U.S. (''[[Newsweek]]''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/galleries/2012/10/22/newsweek-green-rankings-2012-america-s-greenest-companies-photos.html#cc13b58b-97cb-46e9-b0c1-0893ee61f04d|title=IBM #1 in Green Rankingss for 2012|publisher=thedailybeast.com}}</ref> the №2 most respected company (''[[Barron's (newspaper)|Barron's]]''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424053111903882904577478993057727490.html?mod=bol_share_tweet|title=The World's Most Respected Companies|last=Santoli|first=Michael|date=23 June 2012|publisher=Barron's|accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref> the №5 most admired company (''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]''), the №18 most innovative company (''[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company]]''), and the №1 in [[Information technology consulting|technology consulting]] and №2 in [[outsourcing]] ([[Vault.com|Vault]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vault.com/wps/portal/usa/rankings/individual?rankingId1=255&rankingId2=255&rankings=1&rankingYear=|title=Tech Consulting Firm Rankings 2012: Best Firms in Each Practice Area|publisher=Vault|accessdate=29 December 2011}}</ref> In 2015, Forbes ranked IBM the №5 most valuable brand.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The World's Most Valuable Brands|url = https://www.forbes.com/powerful-brands/|accessdate = 2015-09-02}}</ref>
==People and culture==
===Employees===
{{See also|List of IBM CEOs}}
[[File:Ibmaustin designcamp.jpg|thumb|New IBMers being welcomed to bootcamp at IBM Austin, 2015]]
[[File:Watson Jeopardy demo.jpg|thumb|Employees demonstrating [[IBM Watson]] capabilities in a [[Jeopardy!]] exhibition match on campus, 2011]]
IBM has one of the largest workforces in the world, and employees at Big Blue are referred to as "IBMers". The company was among the first corporations to provide group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935), training for women (1935), paid vacations (1937), and training for disabled people (1942). IBM hired its first black salesperson in 1946, and in 1952, CEO [[Thomas J. Watson, Jr.]] published the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in [[Brown vs. Board of Education]] and 11 years before the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. The [[Human Rights Campaign]] has rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness every year since 2003,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://w3.hrc.org/Template.cfm?Section=Search_the_Database&Template=/CustomSource/WorkNet/srch_dtl.cfm&srchtype=QS&searchid=34&orgid=1238|title=International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) profile|publisher=HRC Corporate Equality Index Score}}</ref> with IBM providing same-sex partners of its employees with [[Health insurance|health benefits]] and an anti-discrimination clause. Additionally, in 2005, IBM became the first major company in the world to commit formally to not use [[genetic testing|genetic information]] in employment decisions; and in 2015, IBM was named to ''[[Working Mother]]''{{'}}s 100 Best Companies List for the 30th consecutive year.<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM Named To Working Mother's 100 Best Companies List For 30th Consecutive Year|url=https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/47704.wss|publisher=IBM Newsroom|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref>
IBM has several leadership development and recognition programs to recognize employee potential and achievements. For early-career high potential employees, IBM sponsors leadership development programs by discipline (e.g., [[management|general management]] (GMLDP), [[human resources management|human resources]] (HRLDP), [[finance]] (FLDP)). Each year, the company also selects 500 IBMers for the IBM Corporate Service Corps (CSC),<ref>{{cite web|title=The IBM Corporate Service Corps|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/responsibility/corporateservicecorps/|publisher=IBM CSC|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> which has been described as the corporate equivalent of the [[Peace Corps]] and gives top employees a month to do [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian work]] abroad.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why IBM Gives Top Employees a Month to Do Service Abroad|url=https://hbr.org/2014/11/why-ibm-gives-top-employees-a-month-to-do-service-abroad|publisher=Harvard Business Review|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> For certain [[interns]], IBM also has a program called [[Extreme Blue]] that partners top business and technical students to develop high-value technology and compete to present their business case to the company's CEO at internship's end.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-01.ibm.com/employment/us/extremeblue/ |title=Extreme Blue web page |publisher=01.ibm.com |date=2007-09-07 |accessdate=2010-05-23}}</ref>
The company also has various designations for exceptional individual contributors such as Senior Technical Staff Member (STSM), Research Staff Member (RSM), Distinguished Engineer (DE), and Distinguished Designer (DD).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Taft|first1=Derryl|title=IBM Launches Distinguished Designer Program|url=http://www.eweek.com/developer/ibm-launches-distinguished-designer-program.html|publisher=eWeek|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> Prolific inventors can also achieve patent plateaus and earn the designation of [[IBM Master Inventor|Master Inventor]]. The company's most prestigious designation is that of [[IBM Fellow]]. Since 1963, the company names a handful of Fellows each year based on technical achievement. Other programs recognize years of service such as the Quarter Century Club established in 1924, and sellers are eligible to join the Hundred Percent Club, composed of IBM salesmen who meet their quotas, convened in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Each year, the company also selects 1,000 IBMers annually to award the Best of IBM Award, which includes an all-expenses paid trip to the awards ceremony in an exotic location.
IBM's culture has evolved significantly over its century of operations. In its early days, a dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie constituted the public uniform for IBM employees.<ref name="Strategic Marketing">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Paul Russell |title=Strategic Marketing Communications: New Ways to Build and Integrate Communications |publisher=Kogan Page |year=1999 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=HYvbeQLf_gEC&pg=PA24&lpg=PA24&dq=%22sincere+tie%22+ibm |isbn=0-7494-2918-6 }}</ref> During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO [[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]] relaxed these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees.<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM Attire|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/waywewore/waywewore_1.html|work=IBM Archives|publisher=IBM Corp.|accessdate=31 May 2012}}</ref> The company's culture has also given to different plays on the company acronym (IBM), with some saying is stands for "I've Been Moved" due to relocations and layoffs,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Goldman|first1=David|title=IBM stands for 'I've Been Moved'|url=http://money.cnn.com/2009/03/31/technology/ibm/|publisher=CNN Money|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> others saying it stands for "I'm By Myself" pursuant to a prevalent work-from-anywhere norm,<ref>{{cite web|title=IBM stands for "I'm by myself' for teleworkers of the blue giant|url=http://www.africanamerica.org/topic/ibm-stands-for-im-by-myself-for-teleworkers-of-the-blue-giant|publisher=African America|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> and others saying it stands for "I'm Being Mentored" due to the company's open door policy and encouragement for mentoring at all levels.<ref>{{cite web|title=Intelligent Mentoring|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyVxNfJ94pMC&pg=PT44&lpg=PT44&dq=IBM+%22I%27m+by+myself%22&source=bl&ots=BgtwRKapDQ&sig=n-V_oIM75kemRxFudKuxEIHaSZ0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwim9sbe1rzOAhUI7mMKHQoJCMgQ6AEITzAI#v=onepage&q=IBM%20%22I%27m%20by%20myself%22&f=false|publisher=IBM Press|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> In terms of labor relations, the company has traditionally resisted labor union organizing,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Logan |first=John |title=The Union Avoidance Industry in the United States |journal=British Journal of Industrial Relations |date = December 2006|pages=651–675 |url=http://www.newunionism.net/library/organizing/Logan%20-%20The%20Union%20Avoidance%20Industry%20in%20the%20United%20States%20-%202006.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.endicottalliance.org/iwiswebsite/iwis-ibmgua-links.htm|title=IBM Global Unions Links|publisher=EndicottAlliance.org}}</ref> In Japan, IBM employees also have an [[American football]] team complete with pro stadium, cheerleaders and televised games, competing in the Japanese [[X-League]] as the "[[IBM Big Blue (X-League)|Big Blue]]".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bort|first1=Julie|title=In Japan, IBM employees have formed a football team complete with pro stadium, cheerleaders and televised games|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/ibm-employees-form-football-team-2015-5|publisher=Business Insider|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref>
In 2015, IBM started giving employees the option of choosing either a [[personal computer|PC]] or a [[Macintosh|Mac]] as their primary work device, resulting in IBM becoming the world's largest Mac shop.<ref>{{cite web|title=Switch to Macs from PCs reportedly saves IBM $270 per user|url=http://www.cio.com/article/3001871/macbook/switch-to-macs-from-pcs-reportedly-saves-ibm-270-per-user.html|publisher=CIO|accessdate=12 August 2016}}</ref> In 2016, IBM eliminated forced rankings and changed its annual performance review system to focus more on frequent feedback, coaching, and skills development.<ref>Shana Lebowitz, Business Insider. “[http://www.businessinsider.com/ibm-now-uses-the-ace-app-to-give-and-receive-real-time-feedback-2016-5 After overhauling its performance review system, IBM now uses an app to give and receive real-time feedback].” May 20, 2016. May 20, 2016.</ref>
====IBM alumni====
<!-- ONLY SUPER NOTABLE PEOPLE IN THIS LIST, ALL OTHERS CAN BE TAGGED WITH CATEGORY-->Many IBMers have also achieved notability outside of work and after leaving IBM. In business, former IBM employees include [[Apple Inc.]] CEO [[Tim Cook]],<ref name="people.forbes.com">{{cite news|url=https://people.forbes.com/profile/timothy-d-cook/6607|work=Forbes|title=Timothy D. Cook Profile}}</ref> former [[Electronic Data Systems|EDS]] CEO and politician [[Ross Perot]], [[Microsoft]] chairman [[John W. Thompson]], [[SAP SE|SAP]] co-founder [[Hasso Plattner]], [[Advanced Micro Devices|Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)]] CEO [[Lisa Su]],<ref name=AMDExecBio>{{cite web |url=https://www.amd.com/en-us/who-we-are/corporate-information/leadership/lisa-su |title=Executive Biographies - Lisa Su |publisher=Amd.com |date= |accessdate=2014-10-10}}</ref> [[Citizens Financial Group]] CEO [[Ellen Alemany]], former [[Yahoo!]] chairman [[Alfred Amoroso]], former [[AT&T]] CEO [[C. Michael Armstrong]], former [[Xerox Corporation]] CEOs [[David T. Kearns]] and [[G. Richard Thoman]],<ref name="crossing">{{cite news | last=Kearns | first=David T | title=Crossing the Bridge: Family, Business, Education, Cancer, and the Lessons Learned | date=31 May 2005 | publisher=Meliora Press}}</ref> former [[Fair Isaac Corporation]] CEO [[Mark N. Greene]],<ref>[http://money.cnn.com/2008/02/08/markets/morningbuzz/index.htm CNN/Money]</ref> [[Citrix Systems]] co-founder [[Ed Iacobucci]], [[ASOS.com]] chairman [[Brian McBride (director)|Brian McBride]], and former [[Lenovo]] CEO [[Steve Ward (businessman)|Steve Ward]].
In government, alumna [[Patricia Roberts Harris]] served as [[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development]], the first [[List of African American United States Cabinet Secretaries|African American]] [[List of female United States Cabinet Secretaries|woman]] to serve in the [[United States Cabinet]].<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Women in World History|Women in World History, Vol. 7: Harr-I]]|year=2000|publisher=Yorkin Publications|location=Waterford, CT|isbn=0-7876-4066-2|pages=14–17|last=DeLaat|first=Jacqueline|chapter=Harris, Patricia Roberts}}</ref> [[Samuel K. Skinner]] served as [[U.S. Secretary of Transportation]] and as the [[White House Chief of Staff]]. Alumni also include [[U.S. Senator]]s [[Mack Mattingly]] and [[Thom Tillis]]; [[Wisconsin]] governor [[Scott Walker (politician)|Scott Walker]];<ref>{{cite news|last1=Miller|first1=Zeke J.|title=Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker: A 2016 Contender But Not A College Graduate|url=http://swampland.time.com/2013/11/19/wisconsin-gov-scott-walker-a-2016-contender-but-not-a-college-graduate|accessdate=May 1, 2015|publisher=TIME|date=November 19, 2013}}</ref> former [[U.S. Ambassador]]s [[Vincent Obsitnik]] ([[U.S. Ambassador to Slovakia|Slovakia]]), [[Arthur K. Watson]] ([[U.S. Ambassador to France|France]]), and [[Thomas Watson Jr.]] ([[U.S. Ambassador to Russia|Soviet Union]]); and former [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]]s [[Todd Akin]],<ref name="bluebook 1993.1">[http://cdm.sos.mo.gov/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=%2Fstatepub&CISOPTR=99477&REC=17&CISOBOX=akin Official Manual of the State of Missouri, 1993–1994], p. 157</ref> [[Glenn Andrews]], [[Robert Garcia (New York politician)|Robert Garcia]], [[Katherine Harris]],<ref>[http://votesmart.org/candidate/biography/1617/katherine-harris "Katherine Harris' Biography"]. ''[[Project Vote Smart]]''. Retrieved April 30, 2006.<!-- https://web.archive.org/web/20120124035354/http://www.votesmart.org/candidate/biography/1617/katherine-harris --></ref> [[Amo Houghton]], [[Jim Ross Lightfoot]], [[Thomas J. Manton]], [[Donald W. Riegle Jr.]], and [[Ed Zschau]].
Others are [[NASA]] astronaut [[Michael J. Massimino]], [[Canadian Astronaut Corps|Canadian astronaut]] [[Julie Payette]], [[Harvey Mudd College]] president [[Maria Klawe]], [[Western Governors University]] president emeritus [[Robert Mendenhall]], former [[University of Kentucky]] president [[Lee T. Todd Jr.]], [[NFL]] referee [[Bill Carollo]],<ref name=NASO>{{cite web |title=Board of Directors — Officers |url=http://www.naso.org/board.htm |publisher=National Association of Sports Officials |accessdate=2007-09-27 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915040843/http://www.naso.org/board.htm |archivedate=September 15, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref> former [[Rangers F.C.]] chairman [[John McClelland (businessman)|John McClelland]], and recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] [[J. M. Coetzee]]. [[Thomas Watson Jr.]] also served as the [[List of national presidents of the Boy Scouts of America|11th national president]] of the [[Boy Scouts of America]].<!-- ONLY SUPER NOTABLE PEOPLE IN THIS LIST, ALL OTHERS CAN BE TAGGED WITH CATEGORY-->
===Board and shareholders===
[[File:Warren Buffett KU Visit.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Warren Buffett]]'s [[Berkshire Hathaway]] is one of IBM's largest shareholders.]]
The company's 14 member [[Board of Directors]] are responsible for overall corporate management and includes the CEOs of [[American Express]], [[Ford Motor Company]], [[Boeing]], [[Dow Chemical]], [[Johnson and Johnson]], and [[Cemex]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibm.com/investor/governance/board-of-directors.wss |title=Board of Directors |author= |work= |publisher=IBM |accessdate=17 December 2010}}</ref>
In 2011, IBM became the first technology company [[Warren Buffett]]'s [[holding company]] [[Berkshire Hathaway]] invested in.<ref>{{cite web|last1=McFarland|first1=Matt|title=Warren Buffett never liked tech stocks. So why does he own Apple?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2016/05/16/warren-buffett-never-liked-tech-stocks-so-why-does-he-own-apple/|publisher=Washington Post|accessdate=11 August 2016}}</ref> As of 2016, he owns 8.51 percent of IBM's shares.<ref>{{cite web|title=Buffett: We've 'never sold a share of IBM' and might buy more|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/buffett-weve-never-sold-a-share-of-ibm-and-might-buy-more.html|publisher=CNBC|accessdate=11 August 2016}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[List of companies of the United States#I|List of companies of the United States § I]]
* [[List of electronics brands]]
* [[List of international subsidiaries of IBM]]
* [[List of largest Internet companies]]
* [[List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue]]
* [[List of mergers and acquisitions by IBM ]]
* [[Tech companies in the New York City metropolitan region]]
* [[Top 100 US Federal Contractors]]
{{Portalbar|Information technology|Companies}}
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading==
<!--- if you delete a book from this section, please add that book to History of IBM#Further reading --->
{{for|additional books about IBM, biographies, memoirs, technology and more|History of IBM#Further reading}}
<!----- Books listed here are mostly less than 25 years old ----------------->* {{cite book | author= Henry Bakis | editor = F. E. Ian Hamilton | year = 1987 | title = Industrial change in advanced economies | publisher = Croom Helm | publication-place = London | chapter = Telecommunications and the Global Firm | pages = 130–160 | isbn = 9780709938286 }}
* {{cite book | author = Roy A Bauer | year = 1992 | title = The Silverlake Project: Transformation at IBM (AS/400) | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] |display-authors=etal}}
* {{cite book | author = [[Edwin Black]] | year = 2008 | title = [[IBM and the Holocaust]]: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation | isbn = 0-914153-10-2 }}
* {{cite book | author = Paul Carroll | year = 1993 | title = Big Blues: The Unmaking of IBM | publisher = Crown Publishers }}
* {{cite book | author = Doug Garr | year = 1999 | title = IBM Redux: Lou Gerstner & The Business Turnaround of the Decade | publisher = Harper Business }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]] | year = 2002 | title = Who Says Elephants can't Dance? | publisher = HarperCollins | isbn = 0-00-715448-8 }}
*Greulich, Peter E. (2014) ''A View from Beneath the Dancing Elephant: Rediscovering IBM's Corporate Constitution'' MBI Concepts Corporation. {{ISBN|0-9833734-6-9}}.
* {{cite book | author = John Harwood | year = 2011 | title = The Interface: IBM and the Transformation of Corporate Design, 1945-1976 | isbn = 978-0-8166-7039-0 }}
* {{cite book | author = Robert Heller | year = 1994 | title = The Fate of IBM | publisher = Little Brown }}
* {{cite book | author = David Mercer | year = 1987 | title = IBM: How the World's Most Successful Corporation is Managed | publisher = Kogan Page }}
* {{cite book | author = David Mercer | year = 1988 | title = The Global IBM: Leadership in Multinational Management | publisher = Dodd, Mead |page=374}}
*Mills, D. Quinn; Friesen, G. Bruce (1996). ''Broken Promises: An Unconventional View of What Went Wrong at IBM''. Harvard Business School. {{ISBN|0-87584-654-8}}.
* {{cite book | author = Emerson W. Pugh | year = 1996 | title = Building IBM: Shaping an Industry | publisher = [[MIT Press]] }}
* {{cite book | author = Robert Slater | year = 1999 | title = Saving Big Blue: IBM's Lou Gerstner | publisher = McGraw Hill }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Ulrich Steinhilper]] | year = 2006 | title = Don't Talk – Do It! From Flying To Word Processing | isbn = 1-872836-75-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = Ernest von Simson | year=2009 |title = The Limits of Strategy: Lessons in Leadership from the Computer Industry |publisher= iUniverse |isbn= 978-1-4401-9258-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Thomas Watson, Jr.]] | year = 1990 | title = Father, Son & Co: My Life at IBM and Beyond | isbn = 0-553-29023-1 }}
==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
* {{Official website|https://www.ibm.com/us-en/}}
** {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961022175210/http://www.ibm.com |date=October 22, 1996 |title=IBM website }}
{{finance links
| name = IBM Corp.
| symbol = IBM
| sec_cik = 786000
| yahoo = IBM
| google = IBM
}}
* {{cite news | author = Samme Chittum | title = In an I.B.M. Village, Pollution Fears Taint Relations With Neighbors | url = https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E4DF1631F936A25750C0A9629C8B63&fta=y | publisher = New York Times | date=2004-03-15}}
* {{OpenCorp|IBM}}
{{IBM}}
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{{Major information technology companies}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Authority control}}
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